Added functor post
Levi Pearson
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---
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Title: The Many Functions of Functor
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---
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Although I became most familiar with the word through exposure to
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Category Theory, I knew that "functor" had at least a couple of other
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meanings in other contexts. I'd looked up its history before, but
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neglected to write it down. Now I won't have to do it again!
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The Players: Carnap, Quine, Tarski
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----------------------------------
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According to a number of sources, "functor" entered the lexicon via
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the work of [Rudolf Carnap][RC]. Carnap studied philosophy, physics,
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and mathematics at university, including several courses in
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mathematics and logic from Gottlob Frege. He later studied the theory
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of relativity at Berlin, where Einstein was professor of physics.
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His dissertation concerned an axiomatic system for space-time theory,
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which was written from a philosophical point of view. Thereafter he
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became involved with the [Vienna Circle][VC] of philosophers and ended
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up as a leading member. This group advanced the philosophy of logical
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positivism and was deeply concerned with the philosophy and practice of
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science.
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In 1929, Carnap met [Alfred Tarski][AT], a Polish logician from the
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[Lvov-Warsaw school of philosophy][LW] who was developing a logical
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basis for the meaning of truth. A few years later, he moved to Prague
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to become a professor and wrote the 1934 book *The Logical Syntax of
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Language*, which contains (as far as I am aware) the first use of
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"functor". I will return to the book in a moment, after making a few
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more of Carnap's connections apparent.
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In Prague, Carnap met the philosophers [Willard van Orman Quine][WQ]
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and Charles Morris. When World War II broke out, they helped Carnap
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escape to the United States, where he remained. Tarski escaped Poland
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to the USA as well, and the trio of Carnap, Quine, and Tarski were
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thus able to meet (along with other leading philosophers and
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logicians) for a [year at Harvard][CTQ] to work on the leading issues
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of analytical philosophy.
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Carnap's Logical Syntax of Language
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-----------------------------------
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As part of his desire to put the practice of science on firm logical
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ground, Carnap wanted to have an appropriate understanding of language
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that could be used to properly express scientific truths.
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[Logical Syntax][LSL] creates a formal system, a meta-language, with
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which to reason about constructs of natural language.
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The meta-language defines syntactic constructs belonging to four
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categories:
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1. A fixed set of 11 symbols
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2. (Numerical) variables
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3. Constant numerals
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4. Predicates
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5. Functors
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The point was to remove ambiguity of names and to add precision by
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designating things numerically as much as possible.
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### Basic forms
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Designation of *things* was done positionally by numerical coordinates
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rather than by symbolic name. Positional numerals were defined
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inductively from `0` designating the initial position and primes
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marking successive positions. The traditional Arabic numerals were
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introduced as shorthand, as well as the possibility of tupling numbers
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to represent higher-dimensional positions.
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Expressing properties of things was done via *predicates* over
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positions. These could express direct properties of things or
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relationships between things, but in a symbolic manner via the
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name-form of the predicate.
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In order to represent properties numerically, the idea of *functor*
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was introduced. Functors were similar in form to predicates, in that
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they had a name-form and took numeric arguments, but instead of
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representing facts and/or relations they represented another numeric
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value.
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### Expressions
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Valid combinations of the basic forms create expressions. Two
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important kinds of expressions were "sentences" and "numerical
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expressions."
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Sentences express logical truth value, so the expression of a
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predicate form is a sentence. Some of the symbols are combining forms
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that create sentences as well, such as equations.
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Expressions of functors, on the other hand, are always numerical
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expressions. Numeric expression was very important to Carnap for the
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precise transmission of scientific detail, so he valued this precision
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of functor expression over the more "vague" relative or symbolic
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nature of predicate expressions.
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Although Carnap's concept of functor seems similar to that of a
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mathematical function, it is actually quite different. Functions are
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always a fixed relation between numbers, but functors may represent
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numerical observations of the world as well, such as the example given
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early on of the *temperature-functor* that has the numeric value of
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the temperature of its argument.
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Connection to Category Theory
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-----------------------------
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[Saunders Mac Lane][SM], one of the founders of Category Theory, was
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an associate of Carnap's at the University of Chicago and was given
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the English translation of *Logical Syntax of Language* in 1938 for
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review. He was not particularly interested in the philosophical
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aspects of Carnap's usage of "functor", but in it he saw a perfect
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candidate to resolve a similar [notational dilemma][TO] in Category
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Theory.
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So, the Category Theory notion of "functor" is related to Carnap's
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original usage by similarity of role, as a stand-in for something
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"function-like" in some aspect, rather than being related by
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definition or usage. Steve Awodey, an associate of Mac Lane's and a
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category theorist himself, [remarked][CCC] that the word "functor" may
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end up being "Carnap's most far-reaching contribution to modern
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mathematics."
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Quine's Predicate-Functor Logic
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-------------------------------
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Quine, Tarski, and Carnap [conversed][CTQ] about Carnap's logical
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syntax while they were together at Harvard, and it seems to have
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influenced Quine's thinking about logic. He certainly adopted the term
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"functor", though he expanded its meaning. Quine thought that Carnap's
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connective symbols, e.g. the equality symbol that generates equations,
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should be replaced by more general operators that construct sentences
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via composition.
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Quine later referred to these operators as "predicate-functors"
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(possibly following Carnap's convention of naming a sort of functor by
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its domain, e.g. "temperature-functor") and developed an [algebraic
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logic][ALP] based around them.
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He later gave a more [general definition][ML] to the term "functor"
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itself, encompassing this new role as a generator of sentences rather
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than a numeric relation. It should also be noted that while Carnap was
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concerned with discussing language in general, including natural
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language, Quine was primarily interested in formal logic systems. In
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particular, his Predicate Functor Logic was an alternative to
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Combinatory Logic that avoided higher-order functions and the
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resulting encroachment of set theory into the system, which he viewed
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as outside the scope of logic.
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Categorical Grammar
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-------------------
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Tarski's early career was influenced by his thesis advisor
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[Stanislaw Lesniewski][SL] and also by the other prominent Lvov-Warsaw
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philospher [Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz][KA]. Lesniewski worked in the field
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of ontology and was particularly interested in semantic categories;
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this use of "category" is due to Husserl and can be traced back to
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Aristotle.
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Ajdukiewicz applied the notion of categories to the syntax of language
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to create the field of [categorical grammar][CG]. The syntactic
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structure was thought to determine the semantic meaning in reasonable
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languages, thus the borrowed categorical terminology.
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Syntactic categories are an equivalence class of expressions such that
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a sentence containing one of these sentences remains a sentence when
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it is substituted for any other expression that is a member of the
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same category. As such, syntactic categories are essentially the same
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as the types of Russell.
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There are two kinds of categories; basic categories, which are
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enumerated in the definition of the language, and all others are
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complex (derived) categories. Expressions in complex categories are
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created by combining other expressions via a special kind of "functor"
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expression. These other expressions are called "arguments" to the
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functor, and the new compound expression is the functor's "value".
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Although Ajdukiewicz's early work on syntactic categories predated
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*Logical Syntax of Language*, it seems likely that the field of
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Categorical Grammar was influenced both directly via the text, which
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shared similar goals, and probably also via the influence of Tarski
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and Quine who made use of it (if not for precisely the same purposes)
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in their own work.
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Categorical Grammar is primarily concerned with matters of natural
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language, but Joachim Lambek's work on the [Lambek Calculus][LC] drew
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it somewhat back towards mathematics and logic. Lambek Calculus
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resembles in some ways Alonzo Church's Lambda Calculus (of the simply
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typed variety), Quine's Functor Predicate Logic, and combinatory
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logic.
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Of parenthetical interest is the fact that the logicians of the
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Lvov-Warsaw school preferred to place their functors at the front of
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their arguments; by this practice they allowed expressions to be
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unambiguous without parentheses. This practice became known as "Polish
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Notation", which is familiar to many users of Hewlett Packard
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calculators by way of its similarly bracketless Reverse Polish
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Notation.
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Functors in Programming
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-----------------------
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The use of functor via its Category Theory interpretation is familiar
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to many functional programmers today. It has a direct, though not
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all-encompassing, presence in Haskell via the Functor type class.
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Perhaps not quite so familiar is the linguistic interpretation as used
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by [Prolog][PRO]. And the SML Module language uses the term functor;
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although this can be interpreted in the categorical sense, it also
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makes sense from the perspective of Quine's Predicate Functor
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Logic. C++'s use of functor to mean "function-like object" seems to be
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another repurposing of the word along the lines of Mac Lane's.
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[RC]: http://www.iep.utm.edu/carnap/ "IEP: Rudolf Carnap"
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[VC]: http://www.iep.utm.edu/viennacr/ "IEP: Vienna Circle"
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[AT]: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/tarski/ "SEP: Alfred Tarski"
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[LW]: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lvov-warsaw/ "SEP: Lvov-Warsaw School"
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[WQ]: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/quine/ "SEP: Willard van Orman Quine"
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[CTQ]: http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/7768/ "Carnap, Tarski, and Quine's Year Together: Logic, Science, and Mathematics"
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[LSL]: http://books.google.com/books?id=3e3gAwAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=rudolf%20carnap&pg=PA14#v=onepage&q=functor&f=false "Google Books: Logical Syntax of Language"
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[SM]: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/05/050421.maclane.shtml "Saunders Mac Lane, Mathematician, 1909-2005"
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[TO]: http://books.google.com/books?id=41bHxtHxjUAC&lpg=PA69&ots=Vj9lsB_gf2&dq=carnap%20functor&pg=PA70#v=snippet&q=%22metamathematical%20expression%22&f=false "Tool and Object: A History and Philosophy of Category Theory"
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[CCC]: http://books.google.com/books?id=DR5DAwAAQBAJ&lpg=PA197&ots=hUJG4tMAo7&dq=carnap%20logische%20syntax%20der%20sprache%20english&pg=PA197#v=onepage&q=functor&f=false "The Cambridge Companion to Carnap"
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[CTQ]: http://books.google.com/books?id=s14AAwAAQBAJ&lpg=PA139&ots=-2_K3d7uP-&dq=quine%20carnap%20functor&pg=PA145#v=snippet&q=Quine%20statement%20composition&f=false "Carnap, Tarski, and Quine at Harvard"
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[ALP]: http://books.google.com/books?id=YReOv31gdVIC&lpg=PA283&dq=%22Algebraic%20Logic%20and%20Predicate%20Functors%22&pg=PA283#v=onepage&q=%22Algebraic%20Logic%20and%20Predicate%20Functors%22&f=false "Algebraic Logic and Predicate Functors"
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[ML]: http://books.google.com/books?id=liHivlUYWcUC&lpg=PP1&dq=quine&pg=PA129#v=onepage&q=functor&f=false "Methods of Logic"
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[CG]: http://books.google.com/books?id=iVVAAAAAQBAJ&lpg=PA234&ots=P6VDNfpt8Q&dq=frege%20functor&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q=functor&f=false "Categorical Grammar"
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[SL]: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lesniewski/ "SEP: Stanisław Leśniewski"
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[KA]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazimierz_Ajdukiewicz "Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz"
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[LC]: http://ling.umd.edu/~alxndrw/CGReadings/lambek-58.pdf "The Mathematics of Sentence Structure"
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[PRO]: http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~billw/prologdict.html#functor "Prolog Functor"
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